Sunday, December 27, 2020

The Middle East: Social Media Revolution in Public and Private Communication

 

Ehsan Shahghasemi 

University of Tehran, shahghasemi@ut.ac.ir

Michael H. Prosser

University of Virginia, michaelhprosser@hotmail.com

ABSTRACT

Interculturally, social media’s impact has been twofold. Social media have provided unprecedented opportunities for members of different cultures to get to know each other directly and hence they have helped people to demystify their intercultural beliefs. At the same time social media have made poisonous hate speech and xenophobic comments communicated to other cultures which is followed by backfire from hated people. This causes a chain of increasing hate speech which eventually finds its way into practice.

The changes in the media landscape as they are related to intercultural communication are what Shutter (2014: p. 478) calls a new field of inquiry, labelled as “intercultural new media studies,” which consists of two fields: (1) new media and intercultural communication theory and (2) culture and new media. The study of social communities is extremely multidisciplinary, requiring expertise from communication, computer science, sociology, behavioral sciences, mathematics, and statistics

Those who have a relevant position in a social media platform organization have access to the most personal information one can conceive. They know what an individual looks like, how he or she lives, whom he or she loves or hates, where he or she goes, what he or she thinks. Doing research on social media gives us better accuracy, particularly in the case of sensitive issues of intercultural communication in the Middle East. In this article, we evaluate different aspects of social media in the Middle East, though with a critical view, the concept of “Middle East” is itself problematic. Middle East is middle east to another construct which is the West.

Fruitful study of social media in the Middle East necessarily includes considerations there of ethnicity and race, religion, identity and language, the economy, and history and wars in the region and elsewhere. 

Key words: Fundamentalism; Hate Speech; Historicity; Intercultural New Media Studies; Middle East; Social Media

Introduction

The so-called Web2 technologies have brought about a revolution in public and private communication. These technological changes could be predicted as the Internet was developing fast during the 1990s. There were many preliminary social networking tools like Bulletin Board Systems (BBSs) which could be traced back to the early 1970s, but, it was the cultural, sociological, economic and political impact of these new technologies which proved to be unprecedented for politicians, businesses, academics, and others. Social media are powerful, but their power is not manifested in the conventional ways one could have predicted 20 years ago. Estimations show that by the year 2014, the number of people who were members of at least one social networking service had passed 2 billion and this number was increasing (Kemp, 2015). 

Social media have left a profound political impact. Things that now happen –particularly in the previously non-democratic societies- could hardly been imagined only two decades ago. As social media give individuals the power of online participation based on –with some reservations- equal opportunities, marginalized and isolated groups are no longer oppressed in silence and they can reach out to the wider society and even bring their plight before the global audience. Many of such instances include the massacre of Rohingya people in Myanmar, relocating, harassing and killing of Sampang Shia people in Indonesia and enslaving Izadi women and children in Iraq that raised global awareness and distaste and pushed the governments to simply “do something.” Social media also have provided a platform for election campaigns and polling surveys which can give the authorities better feedforward and help them make Read More . . .

The Pornography of Poverty: Celebrities’ Sexual Appeal at Service to the Poor?

 ABSTRACT

The mid-ninetieth century witnessed a dramatic rise in celebrity culture. Celebrities from all walks of life popped up everywhere in the industrialized world and -through media- flew to underdeveloped nations. As celebrity itself is a construct, smart publicists started to look for new ways of enhancing celebrities’ reputation. Among many ways, humanitarian work proved to have had a decisively positive effect on celebrities’ place in the public eyes. Henceforth, we have witnessed celebrities intervene in different spheres of professional work like relief, medicine, education, gender equality, public policy, etc., in which they have no expertise. This paper argues that celebrities’ engagements in different spheres of action is designed to serve celebrities themselves, and not those who are in need. As a result, we can increasingly see that some celebrities publish adds appealing followers to donate in exchange for nude photos of him/herself. Since celebrities work to serve themselves, they resort to images and image making, instead of dealing with the problem of poverty itself; this culminates in a situation in which we the audience concentrate on the celebrity, and not the problem he or she claims is trying to solve. I, therefore, call this pornography of poverty.  

 

Keywords: Pornography of Humanitarianism; Celebrity Culture; Pornography of poverty; Iconoclast

 

 

Introduction: The Image and the Pornography

We have been bombarded by images of all kinds for more than a century, but the past two decades have witnessed a big surge in image production and distribution. It is now too hard to avoid the influx of images, whether on the screen of our cellphones or the electronic billboards, big mal monitors, bus stop boards, or even taxi seat monitors. The more prosperous a country is, the more its citizen will have to deal with this influx of images. One recurring kind of image that we see these days, is celebrity images. Most brands now are well aware of the value celebrities have to us and therefore, on most ads, a celebrity is smiling at us and invites us to buy something -or some idea. 

Western philosophy, however, has been always pessimistic towards “the image.” In the Allegory of the Cave, Plato presents most of his major philosophical assumptions: his belief that the world revealed by our senses is not the real world but only a poor copy of it, and that the real world can only be apprehended intellectually:

And is there anything surprising in one who passes from divine contemplations to the evil state of man, misbehaving himself in a ridiculous manner; if, while his eyes are blinking and before he has become accustomed to the surrounding darkness, he is compelled to fight in courts of law, or in other places, about the images or the shadows of images of justice, and is endeavoring to meet the conceptions of those who have never yet seen absolute justice? (The Republic, 360 B.C.E, quoted in Jowett, 1991, 258).

 

In 330 B.C.E Alexander the Great took Persepolis and his soldiers burned this monumental city, but not before they made sure faces of most sculptures were destroyed. They might have known that in ancient Iran the king was in the likeness of God and hence a prince who had a scar on his face could not become a king (Shahghasemi and Tafazzoli, 2013). These incidents happened four centuries before Christ, but the pessimism towards the image remained even after the spread of Christianity. 

Icons (Greek eiko ̄n, ‘image’) were originally small paintings of Christian Read More . . . 

The Pornography of Networked Feminism: The Case of Iranian “Feminist” Instagramers

ABSTRACT

From the beginning, feminism was bent to shatter stereotypes and create a new vision of womanhood in the mainly male-dominated society. One important endeavor of feminism has been to oppose the objectification of the female body. In the male-dominated culture, femininity is mostly associated with young -and sexy- body of the female object. Surprisingly, in the past decade or so, we have witnessed a new wave of feminism which contradictorily tries to appeal to the old notion of the objectified young sexy female body in order to fight the very phenomena of oppression and objectification of the female body. In this study, I will have a review of four Iranian feminist pages on Instagram to show that femininity in these pages is mainly limited to young, beautiful, and sexy women. It seems older women (20% of female population) and even young women in bad living conditions who consist a majority of women in the society are systematically omitted from these pages just because this networked feminism perceives them not appealing to male audiences. 

 

Keywords: Pornography of Feminism; Feminism; Male Gaze; Critical Sociology; Iran; Instagram

 

 

Over the past decade, Iranians have shown a great deal of interest in different social networking sites and platforms. After Telegram was blocked by Iranian authorities in 2017, more than 40 million telegram users looked for an alternative, and many of them migrated to Instagram. Instagram was launched in October 2010 as an image-sharing service and has gained popularity ever since. In December 2014, Instagram had over 300 million users worldwide and, in September 2015, 400 million people in the world had a presence on Instagram and shared photos and videos (Russmann & Svensson2016). As of summer 2020, Instagram has a user base of more than 1 billion. As Instagram is currently not filtered in Iran, the number of Instagram users has always been on the rise in Iran. Now there are more than 24 million Iranian Instagram users -roughly 30% of Iran’s population. Maybe the Iranian authorities thought that the depoliticizing and consumerist nature of Instagram content will lead Iranian users to non-political spheres. 

It is true indeed, but only in the short run. As soon as the users adopt the logic of consumerism, they would come back with financial requests, which the country cannot satisfy as it is economically fragile and under the heaviest sanctions (see, for example, Shahghasemi (2017) and Shahghasemi and Prosser (2019)). This would lead to other social discontents that might harass the government and this is why I think their idea was not a good one. Moreover, Telegram is mainly a text-based platform while Instagram is image-based. This means a Telegram user should first translate written words into a “meaningful” code before consuming it, while an Instagram user directly consumes the image contents Instagram provides. Therefore, Instagram content frees the brain from the burden of continuous work and this is exactly why we like Instagram wandering more than book reading.

As a result, in the past two years, we have witnessed a lowering of public taste Read More . . . 

Sunday, May 27, 2018

Iranians in the Minds of Americans


Author: Ehsan Shahghasemi (Assistant Professor, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran)

Iranians in the Minds of Americans is hitherto the most extensive study on perceptions American people have of Iranians. Also, though there are many books that study political relations between Iran and the US, this book tries to take an intercultural approach and reveal what is actually behind politics. This book not only studies perceptions Americans hold for Iranians, but also tries to put these views in the wider historical, political, cultural and social context. Therefore, we can see in this book a very well-documented history of American missionary work and life in Iran's 19th century. The work of these missionaries, particularly in the field of education, changed the history of Iran forever. Also, missionaries provided the scene for the establishment of the first American legation in Iran. Therefore, in this book the historical relationship between these countries is depicted from before a time of formal relationships to present day.
Through the introduction of the concept of cross cultural schemata by Shahghasemi and Heisey (2009), the book presents a framework for analysis and then it goes on to present results of a study on 1,752 American citizens across 50 American states. The results show clearly the negative role of American media in creating an unfavorable image of Iranian people. Also, we can see that historical events like Hostage Crisis have left a negative effect on Americans' perception of Iranians. Conversely, American citizens who knew an Iranian citizen in person have shown much more positive perceptions about Iranian people.

Sunday, November 13, 2016

Human Rights against Human Rights: Sexism in Human Rights Discourse for Sakineh Mohammadi


This study uses discourse analysis to show how episteme can prevent sophisticated people from seeing obvious contradictions in arguments. Three streams of discourse to save an Iranian woman from a death sentence were studied to show that discourse which was created to oppose sexism in Iran and its manifestation in judicial procedures, itself expressed an overt and intense kind of sexism. Seventeen articles and news stories in widely read news websites, four statements by human rights organizations, and four letters or announcements by celebrities or politicians were studied and the result was that these human rights activities were highly sexist in that they supported a woman convicted for murder and adultery while withholding the same support for her male conspirator. more

Sunday, April 5, 2015

Excerpts from Professor Arthur Asa Berger

1- What I learned from them both [professor Mulford Q. Sibley and another mentor] was the value of following your interests regardless of intellectual fashions and fashioning your own perspective on things.
2- For young grad students I’d remind them that academia is full of landmines from the administration, other faculty members, and students (who now seem to have a sense of entitlement).
3- For university professors, I would suggest they only dine with their backs to walls, and not let their battles with other professors destroy their younger colleagues and their students.
4- A sense of humor will help at all levels
5- Now that many universities are fighting for students (with the possible exception of the top ones, which are fighting off students), they have become more like businesses
6- Many young students, having been told how wonderful they were all their lives, have a sense of entitlement that causes problems.
7-Many try Harvard
And many fail.
Who then go to Princeton
Or to Yale
While those with a brain
The size of a pea.
Have a hell of a time
At USC.
8- Student evaluations are very destructive in universities; the patients are now running the asylum. I know that many of my colleagues inflated their grading to get good reports. If professors are judged on their ability to entertain students, which I fear is often the case, it is a bad omen.
9- I once asked a colleague from another department, “What do you do with your time?” He answered, “I think!” There’s no written record, alas, to show what he thought about anything, other, perhaps, than how to become chair or dean.
10- Good on committees
For which he was cherished.
He never published
And he never perished.
11- So all of this is enough to keep me busy, but not terribly busy. I’m retired and don’t play golf or tennis, so I have to write or I’d be bored out of my mind. I never could have imagined when I was young how my career would turn out, but I’m not complaining about what’s happened. My wife and I love to travel, so I spend a lot of time planning our trips and then taking them.
12- From writing myself into existence in life, it is the boys with the most toys who win.
13- In 1998 I was fortunate enough to win an award by the Advertising Education Foundation and spent three weeks at Goldberg Moser O’Neill, a large advertising agency in San Francisco, as “visiting professor.” . . . There was, I could see, a mountain of labor behind every print ad or commercial.
14- The idea that teenagers aren’t affected by advertising is similar, as far as truth values are concerned, to saying the earth is flat! Teenagers have hundred of billions of dollars of discretionary income, and the advertising agencies make sure, as best they can, that teenagers and their money are soon parted.
15- It helps if you can write in an unintelligible manner; the French are masters of this. I don't think anyone really understands what Baudrillard or Derrida or Foucault or Deleuze writes. The more opaque and elliptical the better, and the more nonsense you write—with a sense of assurance and confidence to carry it all off—the higher your reputation will be. That is because academics, all of whom think they are brilliant and remarkable, will assume that since they can't figure out what you are talking about, you must be even more brilliant than they are.
16- The ultimate dream of university administrators, it seems, is to have a university with only administrators and students and maybe a handful of professors, at the most. The only problem is that a virtual professoriat teaching courses on the Internet would lead, ineluctably, to a virtual set of university administrators.
17- Professors, of course, would like to rid universities of administrators, who came to administer and take care of minor bureaucratic functions—parking and that sort of thing—and stayed to command.
18- I’ve been in universities for most of my adult life. (I don’t know whether I should be pitied or be given a medal for foolhardy valor.)
19- Many professors mistakenly argue that the three best things about academic life are, sad to say—June, July and August! They are, of course, forgetting about the month between semesters!
20- I don’t know how many people, other than myself, will order copies of the book [Aristotle: Comedy], but like all authors, I feel that if a book is available, someone may order it, and that’s what’s important. There’s always a chance that a book will catch on.
21- I must report a bit of fun I had with my Aristotle book. I saw on the Internet that an electronic journal was looking for articles that mixed genres, so I sent them a dozen pages of the Aristotle “comedy.” My thought was that I had a bit of fiction (the so-called translation of the “lost book” on comedy) and a bit of fact—my annotations. I received an e-mail back saying that while the judges thought that while my translation of Aristotle was fine, nobody could see how I was blending or mixing genres. They didn’t realize that my translations was a hoax, and pretended that they were able to evaluate my “translation” of Aristotle from the Greek. I got a big kick out of that.
22- I got the idea in the early seventies, and have numerous places in my journals where I speculate about how such a book might be written and what I might deal with. In 1982 or thereabouts I bought a computer—a Commodore 64 for $900. I thought my son Gabriel might become interested in computers but he never took to them—until recently, that is, and now he works as a senior engineer for a Silicon Valley company. I also had, for the first time, a very elemental word processing system.
23- The computer really changed my life—and, no doubt, the lives of most other writers. For what word processing did was make it possible for me to write something and then, without having to retype it, save it and revise it as many times as I felt necessary. I was liberated from Wite-Out and the typewriter. In addition, e-mail makes it possible for me to communicate with editors all over the world and send them material that arrives in little more than an instant.
24- I never spend more than a couple of hours writing at a time. Because of my productivity, many of my colleagues think I’m at the computer ten or twelve hours a day, but that isn’t true. When I decide to write a book, I work on it steadily, but seldom more than two or three hours at a time. You can do a lot of writing in two hours, if you don’t waste time daydreaming and playing computer games.
25- I am a study in self-creation. I almost feel that I’ve written myself into existence in my journals. I developed my mind, my style, and my sense of myself—with liberal borrowings from here and there. I may be a fictional character or imaginary being who believes himself real? Who knows?
26- From my list of books you can get a sense of my interests. One reason my books were published is because they are “accessible.” That means I didn’t throw fancy jargon around or write in the style that many graduate students learn, which is highly stylized and often quite pretentious.
27- Publishing books is often quite aggravating, for a variety of reasons. Copy-editors go over your manuscripts and ask millions of questions. When you’ve gone over the page proofs and taken care of the index, you find that there are frequently long delays at the printers. Sometimes your editors make all kinds of suggestions, and they often send your manuscripts to professors who make other suggestions and at times really want you to rewrite the book the way they would have written it. Or who trash the book.
28- I must confess that I’m not always successful in publishing books I’ve written.
29- One problem with writing oneself into existence is that you face a problem when you stop writing. Will you cease to exist?

Monday, March 30, 2015

Confessions of Academic Ghost Authors

I have recently published an article with my colleague on academic ghost authorship in Iran. I would like to know your reaction.

Confessions of Academic Ghost Authors

The Iranian Experience

Ehsan Shahghasemi , Manijeh Akhavan

Abstract

Academic plagiarism exists in all academic spheres, but contextual factors determine the level, intensity, and forms of it. Over the last few years, the phenomenon of “Ghost Authorship” has become widespread in Iran, and concerns have been expressed regarding this issue, not only by academicians but also by officials. In this study, 143 students participated in a two-step interview study in which they spoke about their experiences on either seeing a ghost author doing the research of someone else in exchange of money or they themselves being a ghost author. In all, 29 students said that they had done it once or so. The in-depth interviews with these 29 students showed how the plagiarism industry works in Iran, who the customers are, how they find each other, and so on. Read from Sage Open